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___________________________________________ 29
May 2004 - 6 August 2004 THE
ETHICS Lynn
G. Clark SCHEDULE 9:00 - 10:30 a.m. Brief introduction; Species X 10:30 - 11:00 a.m. BREAK 11:00 a.m. - NOON Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ethical Challenge NOON - 1:00 p.m. LUNCH 1:00 - 3:30 p.m. Work in groups on the challenge 3:30 - 5:00 p.m. Group presentations and general discussion
PART I SPECIES X: A CASE STUDY The Atlantic forests
of coastal Bahia, Brazil, harbor some of the greatest diversity of plant
life on the planet. Within the last few decades, however, these formerly
extensive forests have been reduced to approximately 3% of their original
cover due to the cultivation of cacao and other crops. Several botanists have visited the natural populations of Species X over the last 30 years, and a few live plants were removed for cultivation in Brazil and the United States during that time. The plants were collected and taken out of Brazil with the proper authorization, although it is not clear if documentation is available. Regulations in force today (including principles agreed upon at the Rio summit) would probably permit the collection of such plants for research purposes but would not allow for their commercial distribution without some form of compensation to the Brazilian government (assuming the plants have any commercial value, which does not seem likely in this case). Exact Geographic Positioning System (GPS) coordinates for the three populations of this species have been obtained, but have not been released to the general public or scientific community. Species X is currently in cultivation in two places in Brazil, but a dozen or so plants are cultivated at various universities and botanical gardens in the United States. Although the species has some attractive qualities, it grows slowly and probably has little potential for development as an ornamental. It would be of interest to collectors mainly due to its rarity. Species X is very rare and extremely significant evolutionarily (effectively it is a living fossil, showing us what the earliest members of its family may have looked like), a combination which would give it the highest priority according to some conservation biologists. By any criteria, Species X is a rare, endangered species, but it has not yet been listed formally as such. Discussion
Questions 1. Field Collecting: - - - Outline the
steps that would be needed to undertake an expedition to Bahia, Brazil
to study Species X in the field. - - -Based on what
is currently known about Species X, should museum collections be made
at all? - - - If so, who will determine the collecting limits and distribution of specimens?
- - - Should the GPS
coordinates for Species X be published? - - - Or should the
decision be made jointly between Brazilian authorities and the researchers
involved? - - - What are the potential problems that might result from release of this information?
- - - Should a coordinated
attempt to preserve one or all of the natural populations be undertaken,
even if the effort creates local hostility? - - -Is it sufficient
to leave well enough alone, given that the species has survived this long,
and hope that additional, but as yet undiscovered, populations are out
there somewhere? - - - Should (or can) international or national scientific interests supersede local politics and concerns (that is, what if the Brazilian government has an interest in protecting Species X but local residents don't support this)?
- - - CITES is an international treaty that "was drawn up in 1973 to protect wildlife against such over-exploitation and to prevent international trade from threatening species with extinction." Would it be a good idea to list Species X formally under CITES protection even though it does not appear to have much commercial value? - - - Would your answer change if you knew that official CITES listing would most likely make it impossible to rescue these plants and move them elsewhere legally (by Brazilians or anyone else) even if the natural populations were threatened with immediate destruction? - - - What would your reaction be if the apparent lack of documentation regarding the original collection of live plants of Species X (even though done prior to enactment of this provision of the treaty) meant that these plants were subject to confiscation? - - - What if the existence of this treaty resulted in improved protection for some species (e.g., pandas, tigers) but resulted in the loss of others (e.g., cacti, orchids)? PART II: GROUP DISCUSSION OF GENERAL RELATED ISSUES
- - - What about the
idea that basal branches within major clades deserve special conservation
status (as opposed to representatives of more recently evolved and more
speciose clades)? - - - How many rare,
more recently evolved species, is one Species X worth? - - - In the animal kingdom, what about coelocanths vs. cichlids or horseshoe crabs vs. various groups of beetles?
- - - How are these issues relevant to your project this summer? ROLES FOR STRUCTURED DISCUSSION Each participant is assigned a role to play in a general discussion of how best to resolve the conservation issues related to Species X. The person representing Species X presents its viewpoint first, and then others join in as appropriate and as guided by the discussion leader. 1) Species X 2) Private landowner 1 3) Private landowner 2 4) CNPq (Brazilian NSF) representative 5) IBAMA representative 6) local conservationist 7) local farmer 8) local teacher 9) indigenous tribe representative 10) Brazilian botanist 11) Brazilian geneticist 12) State of Bahia government representative 13) interested foreign botanist 14) plant species associated with Species X 15) animal species associated with Species X PART III: CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND THE ETHICAL CHALLENGE The Convention on Biological Diversity (http://www.biodiv.org/) is the first time that biodiversity has been highlighted in a global treaty. The CBD also addresses issues relating to genetic diversity and the exploitation of biological diversity. The three objectives of the CBD, as stated in Article 1, are the 1) "conservation of biological diversity," 2) "sustainable use of its components" and 3) "fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources." In order to achieve these objectives, baseline data on the diversity and ecology of organisms is critical, yet ironically it has become more difficult to obtain collecting permits as countries have interpreted and implemented aspects of the CBD. For biological collectors (including those who study fossils), as well as for those who work with cultural artifacts and human remains, it is important to have a code of ethics to serve as a set of guidelines for these activities. Such a code would be useful in and of itself, but could also assist in establishing reasonable policies for collecting permits and the handling of biological, geological, and culltural specimens. The ethical challenge for the participants is to derive a minimum of five points or ideas that should be included in such a code. Participants work in groups of three or four (determined by interest in anthropology, paleobiology/geology, or biological collections) and then will present their ideas to the assembled participants. We will derive a set of general principles during the following general discussion. PART IV: GROUP PRESENTATIONS Code of Ethics for professional collectors of geological and paleontological material Tony Alvarez | Megan Brown | Lynn Copes | Amie Garcia * Scientific advancement should be encouraged over monetary gain in all cases. * All collectors should obtain permission from foreign (or local) governments and/or land owners to examine, excavate and/or collect material. * The legal owner
of the specimens (individual land owner or country as applicable) retains
all rights to it. They can keep the material, loan it to others, and control
access to the specimens as long as their storage facilities are acceptable.
* The discoverer, in conjunction with the housing facility of the sample, is responsible for providing adequate access to the specimen to other scientists (after the first publication). This may involve limiting measurements of the original (by providing a list of accepted measurements to any researcher who requests it) and providing or denying permission of destructive analysis as appropriate. * While surface finds are considered a form of conservative collection (if stored appropriately), excavations constitute destructive collection. When excavation of an area is contemplated, along with proper permission from authorities, appropriate concern for environmental effects (such as erosion) should be considered. * It is ethical to
keep the exact GPS coordinates of a site/sample confidential if the location
would be at risk from non-scientific interests. The coordinates should
be accessible to others engaged in legitimate scientific research upon
request. Ethics Guidelines for Field Biologists Jon Chen | Emily Moran | Mauricio Torres Field
Collection, Methods: * If it is necessary to sacrifice organisms (as in the making of skins, or other museum specimens), collect in moderation and try to use humane methods. * If you wish to collect only a certain species, avoid non-selective collection methods. * Collect as much information as possible from the specimens you collect. Fewer individuals will have to be sacrificed in the long term. Understand where gaps exist in our knowledge of the organism, and try to fill them. * If an organism is
damaged, far removed from its habitat, or otherwise likely to die if released,
just collect the specimen. Do not waste information by releasing an organism
that cannot survive. * If the species of interest is known to be rare, consider how well understood the species is, how many specimens already exist, and what information is still needed. If the organism is relatively well known from earlier collections, it is best to take no specimens or very few to better preserve the population. If it is poorly known, consider the effective population size, and collect a minimal number. * If the species is
known to be common, more specimens may be collected (to better understand
variation etc.), but do not take more than necessary. The acceptable number
of individuals collected will depend on the biology of the organism. * If facilities or supplies needed are available in the country, use or buy them there and support the local economy. Hire local people, and train them - they can help you, and perhaps continue the work even after you are gone. * Contact local scientists, and consult with them before you arrive and begin work. * Nations and tribes
should have some title to their biodiversity resources (e.g. genetic resources,
pharmaceuticals from medicinal plants). If information gathered proves
profitable, the nation or tribe should share in the profits. * Specific locations
for populations (such as GPS coordinates), especially if the species is
commercially valuable, should be shared with care. If there is any chance
that knowledge of these locations could threaten the species, and especially
if the species is rare, they should not be published, but should be available
to those with a legitimate reason to know (researchers, conservation * If appropriate facilities to maintain specimens are available, a good proportion of those collected should remain in the country. If these facilities are not available, consider offers of training or loans to create them, or other forms of information sharing (a database, CD-guide, etc.). If possible, type specimens should stay in the country of origin. * There should be no discrimination in the dissemination of information unless such dissemination would endanger the survival of the species. * If research is supported
by public/government funds, no private entity should have exclusive rights
to profitable information obtained in the course of that research. Guidelines for Responsible Collection of Flora and Fauna Joaquin Aldabe | Neil Aschliman | Arden Ashley | Xavier Haro Purposes of Collecting
Collecting Restraints
Collecting in Foreign Countries
Responsibility for Collected Specimens
Adapted from: Code of Ethics for Foreign Collectors of Biological Samples. Botany 2000 Herbarium Curation Workshop.
Perth, Western Australia. October 15-19 1990. Dragonfly Society
of the Americas Guidelines for Collecting. 1996. Research Code of Ethics for Anthropology Andrew Gaudeau | Digna Ortiz | Kate Musica | Lee Zelewicz Whenever a scientist pursues a research project he or she has to consider ethics. Ethical obligations can supercede the research projects. If a study could cause damage to a person or culture, then the possible consequences must be weighed with the most accurate scale of ethics. Another point to consider is the ethics of the community one is observing. As a researcher, one must bring a code of ethics to one’s project, but one must also be aware of the local code of ethics. One example of a conflicting code of ethics lies in the observation of the culture of Islam, where pictures of individuals cannot be taken. This is a cultural taboo which the researcher must observe, even if she would prefer to have pictures for her files or publication. - Protection of Individuals - According to the Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association, the main concern of the anthropological researcher is the subject(s) of his or her project; that is, the people, artifacts, and/or species involved. This entails valuing the subject more than any new knowledge that may be acquired through the project. For example, if a cultural group, an artifact, or a species will be put in jeopardy if new information is released to the academic community and or public, the researcher has an obligation not to do so. - Accurate Portrayal - The researcher must accurately portray his or her subject(s) and/or findings. It is unethical to manipulate results to fit a former hypothesis or satisfy personal motivations. - Bias - A researcher must be very careful to be objective, but still maintain the correct degree of involvement in the culture under study. If one’s involvement jeopardizes his or her ability to produce unbiased research, then the ethics of researching have been violated. A second form of bias is ethnocentrism. A certain degree of ethnocentrism is involved in every study. For example, the acquisition of a studied language as a native tongue is not attainable; therefore, the inability to fully comprehend the language may give ethnocentric slant to one’s research. - Trade - Should researchers be allowed to gain access to a culture through the use of trade? Trading can establish a way to gain information and trust within a society, but at what cost? If the items being traded into a culture are from an outside culture is it ethical to allow the intrusion to take a secondary seat to the object of research? An anthropologist must consider the effects of introducing alien items to another culture. - Paying Contacts - The use of a paid informant can bring up a plethora of ethical and research issues. The informant can supply falsified information for economic gain. The goal of payment may also be a foreign idea to the habitants of an area, thus affecting the social patterns as developed around possessions. The economic effects could change the societal placement of the informant, and have larger effects on the local society, such as changing the power differential. - Experiential vs Observer - An anthropologist may participate in the rituals and customs of the culture, but also must maintain the role of an objective observer. The goal is to become a part of the community without becoming the ringmaster. This would allow one to experience the culture while not changing it through his or her position as an outsider. - Publishing - One should be careful to consider the appropriateness of the information to be included in a published document. The subjects may not want others to learn about certain ceremonies, rituals, and customs. It would be unethical to reveal some coveted secrets of another culture. - Statistics - Is it ethical to attempt to reduce a culture, a people, into tables and graphs? A table or graph cannot truly represent the experiences, customs, and beliefs obtained while studying a culture. Ethics to be considered include the production of published materials as well as the ability of these materials to represent the culture under study in its full spectrum. |
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An
extremely rare but evolutionarily significant species of an angiosperm
family, referred to here as Species X, occurs in these forests. This species
is known from only three populations along a 6 km stretch of road in the
cacao-growing region of Bahia; at last count in 1994, a total of about
80-100 plants was found in the three populations. More recent visits to
the site indicate that degradation of these populations has occurred.
One of the populations grows at the edge of a cacao grove, and none occurs
within a protected area. It is possible that additional populations of
the species occur in the area although botanists have looked for it without
success. Recent studies have shown that Species X is one of the few existing
representatives of the earliest lineage of its family. Recent studies
have shown that Species X is one of the few existing representatives of
the earliest lineages of its family.